Antimony in Modern Industry: From Ancient Alchemy to Advanced Applications

Antimony (Sb), number 51 on the Periodic Table, has a long history and many uses. The usage of Antimony in Modern Industry has a wide array of applications, including military production, relying on this metalloid for its strategic importance. Its chemical, physical, and toxicological properties make it valuable in several key applications.

Antimony has existed for thousands of years, with records dating back to 3000 BC. Ancient Egyptians used antimony sulfide in cosmetics like mascara and medications. During the Bronze Age, people combined antimony with copper to create stronger bronze alloys. Medieval alchemists, between 500 AD and 1500 AD, believed antimony had mystical and medicinal properties. They used it in attempts to transform base metals into gold.

Vannoccio Biringuccio, an Italian metallurgist, described metallic antimony’s extraction and properties in De la Pirotechnia (1540). In the 17th and 18th centuries, antimony compounds became common in medicine. Antimony potassium tartrate was widely used to treat parasitic infections. The Second Industrial Revolution, in the late 19th century, marked its full commercial adoption.

Since then, antimony has played a key role in many industries. It became essential for lead alloys in batteries, type metal for printing, and flame retardants. By the early 20th century, it also found use in military, aerospace, and electronics. Its applications in metallurgy, glass production, and ceramics highlight its versatility of Antimony in Modern Industry and technology.

Miners extract antimony mainly from stibnite, the primary ore. They use open-pit or underground methods, depending on deposit size and location. The largest antimony mines operate in China, Russia, Bolivia, South Africa, and Tajikistan.

As of 2024, China dominates antimony mining and production, supplying about 60% of the global market. Russia, Bolivia, and Tajikistan also contribute but remain minor players compared to China. Beyond mining, China controls much of the global supply chain, including processing and refining.

In 2024, China remains the largest antimony exporter, supplying the U.S., Japan, and European nations. These countries depend on imported antimony for industrial use. China’s export quotas in past years have affected global supply and pricing. Regulations determine specific quotas, which can change over time.

The global antimony market is currently valued at approximately $2.3 billion. Experts project it to grow at a 6% annual rate from 2024 to 2030.

In July 2024, antimony metal prices surged to about $22,750 per ton. Earlier in the year, prices ranged between $13,000 and $15,000 per ton. Supply shortages drove this sharp increase, mainly due to reduced production in China and other major producers. Environmental regulations and geopolitical instability contributed to the decline.

Myanmar’s political unrest and transportation issues disrupted antimony mining and exports. Although some smelters resumed production in mid-2024, the market remains volatile. Russia’s role in global supply chains also weakened due to sanctions related to the Ukraine conflict. These restrictions limited antimony exports, usually produced as a by-product of gold mining.

In 2024, Asia dominates the global antimony market, with China leading the industry. Europe and North America also hold significant shares, especially in flame retardants and lead-acid batteries. Many countries, including the U.S. and the EU, classify antimony as a critical mineral. Supply risks and its essential role in key industries drive this designation.

Antimony processing starts with mining, concentration, smelting, and refining. China mainly uses pyrometallurgical techniques like volatilization roasting, reduction smelting, and direct reduction smelting.

After extracting and concentrating stibnite ore, the next step is roasting. Heating the ore with oxygen converts antimony sulfide into antimony oxide. Carbon then reduces the oxide to metallic antimony at high temperatures.

Electrolysis can further refine the metal. Impure antimony dissolves in an electrolyte solution and pure antimony deposits on the cathode. This process removes impurities like arsenic, sulfur, and lead, commonly found in antimony ores.

The purified metal is then cast into ingots or processed into fine powders, depending on its application.

Testing of antimony and its compounds is needed to ensure they meet the required standards for industrial applications. Common methods include X-ray fluorescence and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, which are used to determine the concentration of antimony in ores, concentrates, and the final finished products. Particle size analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction are also used to assess the quality of antimony powders used in advanced manufacturing. Environmental testing is important as well, especially in the production of flame retardants, where the toxicity of antimony imbedded compounds, could pose an issue. Regulatory bodies like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) set guidelines to limit antimony exposure in consumer products to mitigate possible health risks

Antimony plays a crucial role in the electronics industry, mainly in semiconductors and circuit boards. Alloying it with other materials improves conductivity and heat resistance.

One key application is indium antimonide, a semiconductor that detects infrared radiation. This makes it essential for infrared detectors, night vision equipment, and thermal imaging cameras.

Antimony is also used in diodes, photoconductors, and sensors. Its role in high-performance and sensitive electronics, both civilian and military, underscores its importance.

Due to its essential industrial applications and supply risks, many classify antimony as a strategic and critical mineral.

In the automotive industry, antimony is used in the manufacturing of lead-acid batteries, where it is alloyed with lead to enhance the battery’s durability, strength, and corrosion resistance. This makes it well suited for the demanding conditions these vehicles experience. As for electric vehicle batteries, although antimony is not a component of the lithium-ion batteries currently used in electric vehicles, ongoing research is exploring its potential as an anode material within lithium-ion battery systems. This research focuses on enhancing the performance of lithium-ion batteries by investigating antimony as an alternative to traditional graphite anodes. Future advancements in battery technology could potentially increase the demand for antimony in these enhanced lithium-ion systems and other innovative battery technologies.

Antimony compounds, particularly antimony trioxide, is a key component in the production of flame retardants. These flame retardants are essential in improving the fire safety of a wide range of products, including clothing, upholstery, furniture, and carpets. In this context, antimony works in conjunction with other materials to prevent combustion or slow the spread of fire, which is essential when it comes to residential, commercial, and industrial settings.

The construction industry also heavily relies on antimony compounds to improve the fire resistance of various materials used in buildings. Coatings, paints, plastics, and insulation materials often contain antimony based flame retardants to reduce fire hazards. These compounds are particularly important in high rise buildings, commercial complexes like malls, and public infrastructure, where fire safety standards are enforced. In addition to enhancing fire resistance, antimony compounds improve the durability and mechanical properties of materials. They help repel moisture and prevent water infiltration. For concrete exposed to heavy loads or frequent foot traffic, antimony-based protective coatings enhance strength and maintain structural integrity over time.

Antimony is critical and indispensable to the military due to its unique properties, especially in enhancing the performance and durability of ammunition and explosives. For example, antimony is alloyed with lead to produce hardened bullets and shrapnel, crucially important for modern military-grade ammunition. The addition of antimony to lead increases the hardness and durability of bullets, minimizing the deformation upon impact.

This property is vital in the production of armor-piercing rounds and heavy-duty munitions. It increases the hardness and density of lead-antimony alloys, ensuring bullets retain their shape and effectiveness when penetrating hard targets like armored vehicles or concrete fortifications. Additionally, antimony alloys are used in explosive devices and grenades, where they help produce shrapnel that remains sharp and lethal over longer distances, maintaining its intended effectiveness even after detonation.

Antimony is also used in other military applications, such as military equipment, uniforms, and vehicles which are often exposed to extreme conditions and high-risk environments like war zones, where fire hazards pose significant threats. Here Antimony trioxide is commonly used in fire-resistant fabrics for military uniforms, vehicle interiors, and electronic components. These flame retardants play a key role in mitigating fire-related risks during combat and operational scenarios, where the quick ignition of materials could lead to catastrophic damage and loss of life. Additionally, antimony alloys are utilized in the production of protective armor and high-temperature-resistant materials. In body armor and ballistic protection systems, antimony enhances the rigidity and impact resistance of armor plates, significantly improving their ability to stop projectiles and reduce injury to soldiers. Overall, the incorporation of antimony in military applications underscores its importance in enhancing safety and performance in war zone environments.

In the aerospace sector, antimony is used in lead acid batteries, which provide backup power for aircraft systems. The reliability and durability of these batteries are paramount for aviation safety and the dependability of electrical systems especially in emergencies.

Additionally, antimony’s ability to withstand high temperatures and improve the strength of alloys makes it valuable in high-performance bearings used in jet engines and other critical aerospace components. These bearings must endure extreme heat and pressure, conditions where antimony-containing materials excel. Antimony is also used in turbine blades, structural components, engine parts such as valve seats and piston rings, fuel system components, landing gear, and heat exchangers. The incorporation of antimony in these applications enhances the overall performance, durability, and higher cost of aerospace technologies.

Antimony has long played a key role in metallurgical processes, improving alloy properties. Today, it is alloyed with lead in solder, enhancing strength, heat resistance, and durability in electronics and industry. Specialized steel and copper alloys also benefit from antimony. It increases wear and corrosion resistance, making them suitable for harsh industrial environments.

In glass manufacturing, antimony serves as a clarifying agent. It removes impurities and prevents bubbles in optical lenses and high-quality glassware. In ceramics, antimony helps create heat-resistant materials. These ceramics are essential for industrial processes and high-temperature applications.

Research into new antimony applications continues, driven by its unique properties. In materials science, scientists are exploring its role in next-generation semiconductors. Antimony selenide, a compound semiconductor, could improve solar cells and thermoelectric devices, advancing renewable energy technologies.

Antimony is also being studied as an additive in advanced lubricants. Its high melting point and low friction coefficient could enhance high-temperature machinery performance.

Beyond lead-acid batteries, researchers are investigating antimony for energy storage solutions. Solid-state and lithium-ion batteries could benefit from antimony as an anode material or in composite forms. These innovations may improve electric vehicle technology.

These ongoing studies highlight antimony’s versatility and its importance in future technological advancements.

Over the next 30 years, antimony could play a key role in AI and advanced robotics. One promising application is in antimony-based quantum dots, which may revolutionize optoelectronic devices. These include displays, sensors, and communication technologies.

These materials could boost AI-driven systems, making them more efficient and responsive. In robotics, antimony’s heat-resistant and flame-retardant properties could enhance safety and durability. This would be especially useful in hazardous environments or extreme conditions.

Antimony alloys might also help create high-strength, lightweight robotic exoskeletons. These could improve human-robot interactions in healthcare, construction, and military applications.

As demand for smarter technologies grows, antimony’s versatility makes it valuable for future innovations. Continued research and improved processing techniques will be essential to unlocking its full potential.